Toxins

Benzyl butyl phthalate (1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid) is used as a plasticizer for PVC.

Retro-2 (2-{[(5-methyl-2-thienyl)methylene]amino}) is a plant toxin ricin inhibitor, it protects HeLa cells against Ricin, Stx1 and Stx2.

Inhibitor of ceramide synthase

Citreoviridin is a mycotoxin, which is derived from specific strains of the mold genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. This compound is classified as a yellow crystalline toxin and is known for its potent biological activity, particularly its role as an inhibitor of ATP synthase. Citreoviridin functions by interfering with ATP synthesis, a critical process in cellular energy metabolism. It binds to the F0 component of ATP synthase, disrupting proton translocation and thus inhibiting ATP production. This mode of action makes Citreoviridin a subject of interest in biochemical and physiological studies concerning energy metabolism and mitochondrial function. The primary use of Citreoviridin is in research settings, where it serves as a tool to study cellular energy dynamics and mitochondrial function. Its ability to inhibit ATP synthesis allows scientists to elucidate mechanisms of energy production, evaluate mitochondrial health, and investigate potential therapeutic targets for metabolic disorders. Additionally, due to its toxicological significance, Citreoviridin is also studied in the context of food safety and mycotoxin contamination, providing insights into mold contamination in foodstuffs and potential human and animal health impacts.

Joro spider toxin is a neurotoxic peptide, which is derived from the venom of the Joro spider (Trichonephila clavata). This toxin specifically targets neuronal ion channels and acts by modifying their activity, which can lead to alterations in neurotransmission processes. The mode of action involves binding to specific ion channel sites, altering their conformation and function, thereby affecting ionic conductance across neuronal membranes. In research settings, Joro spider toxin is utilized to study ion channel physiology and neuropharmacology due to its selective and potent action on these channels. Its ability to modulate ion channel activity makes it a valuable tool in understanding mechanisms of neurotoxicity, synaptic transmission, and developing potential therapeutic strategies for related neurological disorders. Additionally, the insights gained from studying its effects can contribute to the broader understanding of ion channel-related pathophysiology.

Gliotoxin is a bioactive mycotoxin and antibiotic compound, which is primarily derived from various species of Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi. This epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) toxin possesses a unique disulfide bridge that plays a pivotal role in its biological activity. Gliotoxin exerts its effects through the induction of oxidative stress by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and disrupting cellular redox balance. Additionally, it can inhibit the activation of crucial transcription factors like NF-κB, thereby modulating immune responses. In scientific research, gliotoxin is extensively used to study fungal pathogenicity, particularly in Aspergillus fumigatus, a significant opportunistic pathogen. Its immunosuppressive properties make it a valuable tool for exploring immune system dynamics, especially in the context of transplantation and autoimmune diseases. However, due to its potent cytotoxicity, caution is warranted in handling this compound, emphasizing controlled experimental settings to unravel its complex biological roles.