Antimicrobiens

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STAADIUMTM GlucuroniZide is a targeted inhibitor of glucuronidase-producing bacteria, which is activated by E. coli-specific glucuronidase enzyme. Glucuronidases are enzymes catalyzing the cleavage of complex carbohydrates and E. coli is a well-known producer. In complex cultures, E. coli strains often outcompete bacteria that present at lower titre and STAADIUMTM GlucuroniZide can help to selectively reduce the growth of E. coli. STAADIUMTM GlucuroniZide can be used in microbiome studies, food control, environmental safety, hygiene, and clinical diagnostics. More details can be found in the application notes document.

Gentamicin C2a sulfate is one epimeric form of the aminoglycoside antibiotic gentamicin (a.k.a. gentamycin). Gentamicin interferes with the correct protein production in bacterial cells, by binding to the 16s rRNA at the 30s ribosomal subunit. Gentamicin is a natural mixture of four congeners, one of which is gentamicin C2a. Gentamicin is active against clinically relevant aerobic gram-negative bacteria. Gentamicin C2a has been shown to be biodegradable in the environment, to some extent.

BIOSAFE® Antimicrobial, 5% aqueous solution BIOSAFE® Antimicrobial is a non-leaching silicon-based antimicrobial that imparts bacteriostatic, fungistatic, and algistatic properties to coatings and resins for manufactured goods. 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyldimethyloctadecyl ammoniumchloride, 5% aqueous solution; 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride; Octadecyldimethyl(3-trihydroxysilylpropyl)ammonium chloride, 84% active condensed; Silsesquioxanes, 3-(dimethyloctadecylammonio)propyl, hydroxy-terminated, chlorides EPA Registration Number: 83019-35% of HM4100 in waterUsed in water based surface treatments and coatingsMicrobiostatic agent that protects articles from deterioration and discolorationLeach resistantActive against forms of fungi, algae, and bacteriaHigh antimicrobial performance in ISO and ASTM testingDoes not promote development of resistant microorganismsIncompatible with anionic detergentsTypical use concentrations of 0.25-0.5 wt% relative to the substrate being treated Water Based Surface Treatments CarpetNon-wovensRoll goodsBuilding materialsShoesIndoor environment surfaces

Amoscanate is an antischistosomal agent, which is a synthetic compound with a broad spectrum of activity against parasitic infections. Its mode of action involves the disruption of parasite metabolism and structure, ultimately leading to the elimination of schistosomes. Schistosomes are trematode worms responsible for schistosomiasis, a significant parasitic disease affecting millions of people worldwide. In terms of its applications, Amoscanate is primarily used in the treatment and management of schistosomiasis, where it targets both the adult and larval stages of the parasite. The synthetic origin of Amoscanate allows for precise adjustments in its chemical structure, optimizing efficacy and minimizing adverse effects. Research on its mechanism indicates that Amoscanate interferes with key biological pathways within the parasite, thereby eradicating the infection. While its current use might be focused on helminthic diseases, ongoing studies aim to elucidate additional therapeutic potential. The growing interest in this compound underscores the need for novel therapies in the treatment of neglected tropical diseases.

(S,S)-Valifenalate is a chemical compound that serves as a systemic fungicide, a class of products designed to prevent or eliminate fungal diseases in plants. It is synthetically derived, indicating that its molecular structure is chemically engineered rather than extracted from natural sources. The compound operates by disrupting the fungal life cycle, specifically interfering with cell wall biosynthesis, ultimately inhibiting the growth and reproduction of fungal pathogens. The primary applications of (S,S)-Valifenalate are in agricultural settings, where it is employed to protect crops from a variety of fungal infections that can significantly impact yield and quality. It is particularly effective against oomycete fungi such as those causing downy mildew and late blight. By integrating (S,S)-Valifenalate into crop protection programs, researchers and agronomists aim to preserve the integrity of crop production, thereby contributing to food security and agricultural sustainability. Given its role within integrated pest management systems, understanding its mode of action and efficacy can inform strategic deployment for optimal results.

Inhibitor of protein synthesis; lincosamide class

Levamisole is a synthetic imidazothiazole derivative belonging to the family of anthelmintic drugs. It is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) agonists that binds to nAChRs on the neuromuscular junctions of parasitic worms, mimicking the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. This excessive stimulation of nAChRs leads to persistent depolarization of muscle cells and spastic paralysis to expel of the worms. Levamisole exhibits broad-spectrum activity against various roundworms, whipworms, hookworms, and threadworms. Levamisole HCl is part of our Bio-X ™ Range. These products are aimed at life science researchers who need high quality ready-to-use products for assay development, screening or other R&D work. With a solubility datasheet and convenient vials, all of our Bio-X ™ products are in stock across our global warehouses for rapid delivery and ease of use.

Viramidine is a nucleotide analogue prodrug, which is derived from naturally occurring nucleosides, specifically optimized for enhanced therapeutic profiles. Its mode of action involves conversion into ribavirin triphosphate within the body. This active form inhibits viral RNA polymerase, a critical enzyme necessary for viral replication. By disrupting the synthesis of viral RNA, Viramidine effectively reduces viral proliferation within host cells. Primarily, Viramidine is investigated and utilized in the context of antiviral treatments, especially for hepatitis C virus (HCV). It serves as an alternative to ribavirin, aiming to maintain efficacy while reducing the associated hemolytic anemia observed in ribavirin use. Viramidine's design allows for targeted liver delivery, enhancing its antiviral effectiveness and minimizing systemic exposure. The research focus on Viramidine highlights its potential in improving the therapeutic index of conventional ribavirin by offering a more hepatic-selective approach. Scientists continue to explore its pharmacokinetics and dynamics to optimize clinical outcomes in antiviral regimens.

Kanamycin sulfate is a water-soluble antibiotic. Genes encoding kanamycin resistance are commonly used as selection markers in molecular biology .It acts during the translation mechanism in prokaryotic ribosomes to avoid bacterial cell growth.

Triazavirin is an antiviral drug developed against SAR-CoV-2. The action of triazavirin might be due to its ability to inhibit the Mpro protease from SARS viruses. Triazavirin has been clinically tested in the treatment of COVID-19 patients.

Purfalcamine is a synthetic pharmaceutical compound that belongs to a class of molecules known as small-molecule inhibitors. It is sourced through advanced chemical synthesis, enabling precise structural modifications to optimize its biological activity. The mode of action of Purfalcamine involves selective inhibition of a specific target protein involved in key cellular signaling pathways. This targeted interaction disrupts abnormal cellular processes, making it a promising therapeutic candidate for certain diseases. Purfalcamine is primarily utilized in the field of oncology, where it has shown potential in preclinical studies for targeting cancer cells while sparing normal tissues. In addition, ongoing research is exploring its efficacy in treating other diseases characterized by dysregulated signaling pathways. By interfering with the pathophysiological mechanisms at the molecular level, Purfalcamine represents a sophisticated approach in drug design aimed at enhancing specificity and minimizing off-target effects. Further investigations are underway to fully elucidate its therapeutic potential and safety profile in clinical settings.

Paromomycin sulfate is an aminoglycoside antibiotic with action on bacterial protein synthesis inhibition and is used for treating intestinal infections and leishmaniasis.

Imazamox-o-desmethyl is a herbicide metabolite, which is derived from the biotransformation of the imazamox compound, typically occurring during degradation processes. Its mode of action involves targeting the acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) enzyme-a critical component in the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids in plants. This inhibition disrupts plant growth, leading to effective weed control. In scientific applications, imazamox-o-desmethyl is predominantly utilized for environmental and agricultural studies, where its role as a metabolite provides insights into the fate of imazamox in different ecosystems. Researchers focus on tracking its presence to better understand the degradation pathways, persistence, and ecological impact of the parent compound. The study of this metabolite aids in comprehensive residue analysis, ensuring proper environmental risk assessments and contributing to the development of sustainable agricultural practices.

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Carbovir monophosphate is an antiviral agent, which is a metabolite derived from the prodrug abacavir. It functions as a nucleotide analog that interferes with viral replication. The source of Carbovir monophosphate is the metabolic conversion of abacavir, an antiretroviral medication used in the treatment of HIV. This conversion occurs primarily in the liver, facilitated by cellular enzymes. The mode of action of Carbovir monophosphate involves its incorporation into the viral DNA during replication. By acting as a chain terminator, it effectively halts the elongation of the viral DNA strand, thereby inhibiting the ability of the virus to proliferate within the host cells. Carbovir monophosphate is mainly used in scientific research for the study of antiviral mechanisms and the development of therapeutics aimed at combating retroviruses. It is particularly valuable in understanding the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of nucleotide analogs in the body, contributing significantly to drug design and development in antiviral therapies.

Sulfamoyldapsone is a synthetic antimicrobial compound, which is derived from the dapsone family. Its source is primarily synthetic, designed through chemical modifications of the parent compound dapsone, a well-known antibacterial agent. The mode of action of sulfamoyldapsone involves the inhibition of bacterial folic acid synthesis. By targeting dihydropteroate synthase, an enzyme essential for the production of folic acid in microorganisms, the compound effectively interferes with bacterial growth and replication. The primary applications of sulfamoyldapsone are in the treatment of leprosy and as a component in multidrug regimens for this chronic infectious disease. It may also have potential uses in other antimicrobial therapies, though these are less established. Researchers continually explore its efficacy and safety profile in various clinical and experimental settings to better understand its full spectrum of activity and potential therapeutic benefits.

Cycloheximide, Antibiotic for Culture Media Use Only, is an antifungal agent derived from the Streptomyces griseus bacterium. Its primary mode of action involves the inhibition of eukaryotic protein synthesis by interfering with the translocation step on the 80S ribosome. This leads to rapid arrest of protein assembly, effectively limiting fungal and certain yeast growth in culture. Cycloheximide's unique properties make it invaluable in laboratory settings, specifically for the selective cultivation of bacteria in the presence of fungi. It is commonly used in research to prevent contamination in bacterial cultures, ensuring the precise study of bacterial phenotypes and genotypes. Its application extends to genetic studies, where it helps maintain the integrity of experimental conditions by controlling unwanted fungal proliferation. However, due to its broad inhibitory effects on eukaryotic cells, it is essential to handle cycloheximide with caution, ensuring its use is restricted to carefully controlled environments intended for scientific exploration.

Abacavir is an antiviral nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor that is used for the treatment of HIV. This drug inhibits the activity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) both by competing with dGTP and by its incorporation into viral DNA. Abacavir is part of our Bio-X ™ Range. These products are aimed at life science researchers who need high quality ready to use products for assay development, screening or other R&D work. With a solubility datasheet and convenient vials, all of our Bio-X ™ products are in stock across our global warehouses for rapid delivery and ease of use.

Cephradine monohydrate is a first-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is derived from the fungus Acremonium. It operates by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, a critical process necessary for bacterial growth and replication. This inhibition occurs through the binding of the antibiotic to penicillin-binding proteins, leading to cell lysis and subsequent bacterial death. Cephradine monohydrate is predominantly used in the treatment of infections caused by susceptible strains of bacteria, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and bone infections. Its efficacy stems from its ability to penetrate bacterial cell walls and block their ability to regenerate. Additionally, it is effective against both Gram-positive and certain Gram-negative bacteria, making it a versatile option in clinical settings. In laboratory research, cephradine monohydrate serves as a model compound for studying beta-lactam antibiotics, their mechanism of action, and the development of bacterial resistance, offering insights into new therapeutic strategies.

Triflumezopyrim is a mesoionic insecticide with action on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to block nerve signaling and is used for controlling rice hoppers and leafhoppers in agriculture.

4-Epianhydrotetracycline hydrochloride is a chemically modified antibiotic derivative, originating from the structural transformation of tetracycline. It is derived through epimerization and dehydration processes, which alter the parent compound's structure. The mode of action of 4-Epianhydrotetracycline hydrochloride involves interference with bacterial protein synthesis. It binds to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting the attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex. This disrupts the addition of amino acids to the elongating polypeptide chain, effectively arresting bacterial protein production and inhibiting growth. Despite its structural similarity to tetracycline, 4-Epianhydrotetracycline hydrochloride has a distinct activity profile. Its primary applications are often within research settings, facilitating the study of antibiotic resistance mechanisms and exploring potential pharmacological properties. It serves as an important tool for scientists investigating the biochemical pathways of antibiotic action and resistance, providing insight into how modifications can enhance or diminish antimicrobial efficacy.

β-lactam antibiotic of penicillin subclass, which inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by targeting the proteoglycan synthesis. Cloxacillin has a narrow spectrum of action and is effective against Gram-positive organisms. Cloxacillin is resistant to the action of β-lactamase and therefore preferentially used for treatment of Staphylococcal infections.

Erythromycin, Antibiotic for Culture Media Use Only, is a macrolide antibiotic derived from the bacterium *Saccharopolyspora erythraea*. It functions by inhibiting protein synthesis, specifically targeting the 50S ribosomal subunit in susceptible bacteria. This action results in the prevention of peptide chain elongation, effectively halting bacterial growth and proliferation. In the context of microbiology, Erythromycin is utilized primarily in culture media to exert selective pressure, particularly when cultivating recombinant microorganisms or those with specific resistance markers. Its application is critical in situations where maintenance of plasmids or gene expression systems is contingent upon resistance to macrolide antibiotics. By incorporating Erythromycin into culture media, scientists can ensure that only bacteria harboring specific adaptive traits survive, facilitating the study of genetic modifications or expression systems under controlled conditions.

Applications K252a is a protein kinase inhibitor. It is an analogue of staurosporine (S685000). It shows potent antitumor activity but no antimicrobial activity in vitro, or in vivo toxicity in rodents. References Kase, H., et al.: J. Antibiot., 39, 1059 (1986); Yasuzawa, T., et al.; J. Antibiot., 39, 1072 (1986)

Seco erythromycin is a derivative of the macrolide antibiotic erythromycin, which originates from the bacterium *Saccharopolyspora erythraea*. As a semi-synthetic compound, it retains the core lactone ring structure of erythromycin, but modifications in its chemical configuration confer distinct properties. Seco erythromycin operates by binding to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting protein synthesis. This action effectively halts bacterial growth by preventing the translocation of peptides and thus impairs protein assembly. Primarily, seco erythromycin is investigated for its antimicrobial applications, showcasing activity against a range of Gram-positive bacteria. Its structural modifications may offer potential advantages such as improved acid stability or enhanced spectrum of action compared to unmodified erythromycin. Research is ongoing to fully elucidate its efficacy and potential resistance profiles, contributing to a broader arsenal of macrolide antibiotics in clinical settings where traditional options are limited by resistance mechanisms. Further exploration of its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics could reveal additional therapeutic potential within both existing and novel antimicrobial paradigms.

Minocycline hydrochloride dihydrate is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, which is a synthetic derivative of tetracycline. It is sourced from chemical synthesis processes and possesses potent antimicrobial properties. The mode of action involves inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit, thereby preventing the addition of amino acids to the growing peptide chain. This mechanism effectively disrupts bacterial growth and replication. Minocycline hydrochloride dihydrate is widely used in the treatment of various bacterial infections, including acne, respiratory tract infections, skin infections, and certain sexually transmitted infections. Due to its high tissue penetration and lipid solubility, it is particularly effective against intracellular pathogens and has been researched for use in neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory applications. While it is generally well-tolerated, its use should be guided by susceptibility testing to ensure effectiveness against specific strains. Its robust action and broad applicability make it a valuable tool in clinical and research settings for targeting resistant bacterial strains.

Broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibacterial agent

Dichlobentiazox is a fungicide, which is synthesized from synthetic chemical sources with a mode of action that targets specific fungal processes. It works by inhibiting the biosynthesis of essential cellular components in pathogenic fungi, thereby disrupting their growth and ability to proliferate. In agricultural contexts, dichlobentiazox is applied to control a range of fungal diseases that affect crops. Its unique mechanism is effective in managing resistant strains, making it a critical tool in integrated pest management strategies. The compound is typically used in foliar applications, providing protection against pathogens that attack the leaves, stems, and fruits of plants. By offering a targeted approach, dichlobentiazox enhances crop yield and quality, particularly in high-value crops where fungal pressure is a significant concern. The specificity of its action allows it to be integrated with other control methods, minimizing the risk of resistance development. Its use is governed by strict regulatory frameworks to ensure environmental safety and efficacy in disease management.

4-Epichlortetracycline is a metabolite of chlortetracycline, which is derived from the Streptomyces genus of bacteria. It is structurally related to tetracycline antibiotics but differs specifically in its epimerization at the fourth position. This alteration results in a product with significantly reduced antibacterial activity compared to its parent compound. The mechanism of action primarily involves ribosomal binding, inhibiting protein synthesis in susceptible bacteria; however, the epimerization here compromises this efficacy. In scientific research, 4-epichlortetracycline serves as a reference standard for studying antibiotic degradation and the effects of epimerization on antibacterial potency. It plays a critical role in the quality control of tetracycline antibiotics, ensuring purity in pharmaceutical preparations by identifying degradation products. Furthermore, its presence is an indicator of antibiotic overexposure in environmental studies, where the transformation of chlortetracycline may occur in various environmental matrices. This compound exemplifies the chemical modifications that influence bioactivity and offers insights into the stability and environmental impact of tetracycline antibiotics.

Ribavirin is a guanosine nucleoside analog with broad-spectrum antiviral properties. Ribavirin gets phosphorylated to ribavirin triphosphate in cells and competes with natural nucleotides for incorporation in a nascent RNA chain, thus interfering with RNA synthesis by inhibiting viral RNA polymerases. Ribavirin is also an inhibitor of inosinate dehydrogenase (IMP), which is involved in the biosynthesis of GTP.

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Taxiphyllin is a type of cyanogenic glucoside, which is a naturally occurring compound found in certain plants. It is derived primarily from bamboo shoots, among other plant sources. The compound undergoes hydrolysis when the plant tissue is damaged, such as during chewing or processing. This hydrolytic reaction, typically catalyzed by the enzyme β-glucosidase, results in the release of hydrogen cyanide, a potent defense mechanism for the plant against herbivores and pests. The primary application of studying taxiphyllin pertains to understanding plant defense systems and assessing food safety, particularly in edible bamboo shoots, as improper preparation can lead to cyanide toxicity. Scientists also explore its metabolic pathways in plants to find ways to mitigate the potential health risks associated with its consumption. Additionally, research into taxiphyllin can contribute to advances in agriculture and food processing by developing methods to reduce its content in food products, thereby enhancing their safety for human consumption. Its study thus holds significance in fields like toxicology, biochemistry, and agricultural science.

Lamivudine (commonly called 3TC) is a potent nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor. It is one of the front line treatments for HIV.  It is an analogue of cytidine, and can inhibit both types (1 and 2) of HIV reverse transcriptase as well as the reverse transcriptase of hepatitis B. It needs to be phosphorylated to its triphosphate form before it is active. Lamivudine is part of our Bio-X ™ Range. These products are aimed at life science researchers who need high quality ready to use products for assay development, screening or other R&D work. With a solubility datasheet and convenient vials, all of our Bio-X ™ products are in stock across our global warehouses for rapid delivery and ease of use.

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Inhibitor of cell-wall synthesis; carbapenem class

Pentabromopseudilin is a brominated natural product, which is isolated from marine bacteria, specifically the genus *Pseudomonas*. It operates by inhibiting the enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase enzyme, interrupting fatty acid biosynthesis essential for bacterial and fungal cell membrane construction. As a halogenated phenol derivative, its unique mechanism of action makes it an interesting candidate for antimicrobial research. The applications of Pentabromopseudilin are primarily in the investigation of novel antimicrobial agents. It demonstrates potent activity against a variety of Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria, as well as certain fungal pathogens. This positions it as a valuable tool in the development of new therapeutic strategies against resistant microbial strains. Its study also contributes to a deeper understanding of marine-sourced compounds in antibiotic innovation, offering insights into both natural chemical diversity and potential synthetic analogs for enhanced efficacy and stability. Researchers continue to explore its full spectrum of activity and potential synergy with other antimicrobial agents.

Nocardicin G is a monocyclic β-lactam antibiotic, which is sourced from certain strains of the soil-dwelling actinobacterium *Nocardia*. This organism is known for its ability to synthesize various bioactive compounds. The mode of action of Nocardicin G involves inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis by targeting penicillin-binding proteins, resulting in the bactericidal effect against susceptible bacterial strains. This compound specifically disrupts the formation of the peptidoglycan layer, which is essential for bacterial integrity and survival. Nocardicin G exhibits a broad spectrum of activity against Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria, making it a candidate for further exploration in the treatment of bacterial infections. Its unique structure and mechanism distinguish it from other β-lactam antibiotics, suggesting potential applications in combating resistant bacterial strains. Current research is focusing on its efficacy, safety profile, and potential in clinical settings, as well as its role in the synthesis of novel antibiotics aimed at addressing the growing concern of antibiotic resistance.

Dicresulene Hydrate is an anti-inflammatory compound, which is derived from synthetic sources. It functions primarily by inhibiting specific enzymes involved in the inflammatory response. This inhibition reduces the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, thereby mitigating inflammation and associated symptoms. Dicresulene Hydrate is utilized in various medical applications, primarily for its anti-inflammatory properties. It is often employed in clinical settings for the management of conditions characterized by inflammation. Its effectiveness and targeted mode of action make it a valuable tool in therapeutic regimens aimed at reducing inflammatory responses in the body. Scientists and medical professionals continue to explore its potential applications in treating a range of inflammatory diseases.

Oxibendazole is a benzimidazole anthelmintic with action on microtubule formation in parasitic worms and is used for treating roundworms, strongyles, and pinworms in horses and pets.

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Cefotaxime sodium - Sterile grade is a cephalosporin antibiotic, which is derived from the beta-lactam class of antibacterial agents. It effectively disrupts bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to and inhibiting penicillin-binding proteins, leading to cell lysis and death. This mechanism of action is potent against a variety of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, making it a valuable tool in clinical settings. Cefotaxime sodium is extensively used in the treatment of severe bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and septicemia. Its sterile formulation ensures suitability for intravenous administration, providing rapid therapeutic effects in critical situations. This antibiotic is a cornerstone in antimicrobial therapy, often employed when patients present with life-threatening infections or when other treatments have failed. Its broad-spectrum activity and reliable efficacy underscore its significance in combating resistant bacterial strains, making it indispensable in both hospital and clinical environments.

Naftoxate is a synthetic ester, which is synthesized chemically from raw materials such as fatty alcohols and carboxylic acids. With its ability to reduce surface tension, Naftoxate operates as a surfactant, facilitating emulsification and dispersion of hydrophobic substances within various aqueous systems. The compound achieves this by altering the interface between liquids, enabling them to mix more effectively. The primary applications of Naftoxate are found in diverse industrial and scientific areas, including the formulation of pharmaceuticals, agrochemical products, and cosmetics. In pharmaceuticals, it aids in the delivery of active ingredients by enhancing the solubility and stability of compounds, thus improving bioavailability. In agrochemicals, it functions to enhance the efficacy of pesticide formulations by promoting better distribution on plant surfaces. Within cosmetics, it contributes to the smooth application and stabilization of creams and lotions. Its broad utility stems from its ability to dynamically interact with molecular interfaces, thus providing essential functionality across multiple fields.

This product is part of our Bio-X ™ Range. These products are aimed at life science researchers who need high quality ready-to-use products for assay development, screening or other R&D work. With a solubility datasheet and convenient vials, all of our Bio-X ™ products are in stock across our global warehouses for rapid delivery and ease of use.

Indinavir monohydrate is an antiretroviral medication, which is a synthetic pharmaceutical compound, specifically a protease inhibitor, used in the treatment of HIV infection. It is derived from chemical synthesis processes that follow rigorous standards to produce a pharmacologically active compound. Indinavir functions by selectively inhibiting the HIV-1 protease enzyme, which is crucial for the viral replication cycle. By binding to the active site of the enzyme, indinavir prevents the cleavage of viral polypeptides, leading to the production of immature and non-infectious viral particles. The primary use of indinavir monohydrate is in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimens, often in combination with other antiretroviral agents, to effectively reduce viral load and increase CD4 cell counts in patients infected with HIV-1. This contributes to delaying the progression of the disease to AIDS and improving the quality and duration of life in affected individuals. Its application extends to both initial and salvage therapy in the management of HIV, providing a critical component in the arsenal of pharmaceutical interventions against the virus.

Oxibendazole-amine hydrochloride is a synthetic anthelmintic compound, which is a derivative of benzimidazole, known for its broad-spectrum efficacy against various helminths. It primarily acts by disrupting the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules, effectively impairing essential cellular structures and functions within parasitic worms, leading to their death. Oxibendazole is used extensively in veterinary medicine to control gastrointestinal nematodes in livestock and companion animals. As a benzimidazole derivative, its selectivity and potency make it a valuable tool for managing parasitic infections, enhancing animal health, and reducing economic losses in agriculture. It proves essential in integrated parasite management strategies and is often part of rotational deworming programs to mitigate resistance development. The hydrochloride salt form enhances its solubility, facilitating diverse formulation possibilities for oral administration.

Ceftazidime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with action on bacterial cell wall synthesis and is used for treating severe bacterial infections like pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis.

Grepafloxacin is a synthetic fluoroquinolone antibiotic, which is derived from the chemical modification of natural quinolones. It acts by inhibiting bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV. This inhibition disrupts DNA replication and transcription in bacteria, leading to cell death. The high affinity of grepafloxacin for these bacterial enzymes over human analogs makes it an effective antibacterial agent, specifically targeting the bacterial replication machinery. Grepafloxacin was primarily used in the treatment of a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin infections, and sexually transmitted diseases. Its broad spectrum of activity covers both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. However, due to concerns regarding its cardiac side effects, including QT interval prolongation, grepafloxacin was withdrawn from the market. Despite this, studying its mechanism of action provides valuable insights into the development and optimization of newer quinolone antibiotics, aimed at balancing efficacy with safety.

Ketolide; binds bacterial ribosomes and inhibits translation

Cyclosporin V is an immunosuppressant medication with action on calcineurin inhibition and is used for preventing organ rejection in transplants and treating autoimmune diseases.

Tolnifanide is a fungicidal product, which is a synthetic compound derived from chemical synthesis. It operates by interfering with the normal cellular function of fungi, inhibiting their growth and reproduction. This mode of action involves disrupting key processes within the fungal cells, rendering them unable to thrive in their host environment. The primary applications of Tolnifanide are in the agricultural sector, where it is utilized to protect crops from pathogenic fungi that can lead to significant yield losses. It is particularly effective against fungi that attack the leaves and stems of various plants, including vegetables, cereals, and fruit crops. Its use aids in ensuring crop health and bolstering agricultural productivity, making it a valuable component of integrated pest management strategies. Scientists and agronomists utilize Tolnifanide as part of a broader effort to maintain crop quality and mitigate the impact of fungal diseases on global food supplies.

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Cefixime trihydrate is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with action on bacterial cell wall synthesis and is used for treating infections like gonorrhea, urinary tract infections, and respiratory infections.

Atherosperminine is an alkaloid compound, which is a bioactive chemical derived from plants. Specifically, it is sourced from members of the Lauraceae family, such as Atherosperma moschatum. This compound exhibits a range of pharmacological activities that are of significant interest to researchers. The mode of action of atherosperminine involves interactions with various biological pathways, potentially affecting physiological processes and exhibiting therapeutic effects. The uses and applications of atherosperminine are primarily focused on its potential in medical research, particularly in exploring novel treatments for different diseases. Its bioactivity suggests that it could play a role in modulating biochemical processes, thus providing insights into the development of new pharmacological agents. Due to its plant-derived nature and diverse effects, atherosperminine's detailed mechanism and full therapeutic potential require extensive scientific investigation to fully elucidate its applications within pharmacology.

Magainin 2 is an antimicrobial peptide, which is derived from the skin of the African clawed frog, *Xenopus laevis*. This peptide is renowned for its membrane-disrupting mode of action, where it integrates into lipid bilayers of microbial cell membranes, ultimately leading to disruption and cell lysis. The mode of action is primarily through the formation of pores in the membrane, causing a loss of cellular contents and death of the microbial cell. Magainin 2 has sparked significant interest due to its broad-spectrum activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as fungi and some viruses. Its therapeutic potentials are vast, including its use as a prototype for designing novel antibiotics in the face of rising antimicrobial resistance. Additionally, Magainin 2 and its derivatives are being explored in scientific research for applications in designing antimicrobial coatings and developing new therapeutic agents targeting infectious diseases. The unique properties of Magainin 2 continue to provide insights into novel strategies for combatting pathogens in various biomedical fields.

Faropenem sodium hemipentahydrate is a penem-class beta-lactam antibiotic with action on bacterial cell wall synthesis and is used for treating respiratory, skin, and urinary tract infections.

Inhibitor of cell wall synthesis; cephalosporin class